Foundations of ESS

Environmental Value Systems (EVSs)

Environmental Value Systems (EVSs) are fundamental worldviews that shape how individuals and groups perceive and interact with environmental issues. These systems have evolved over time, influenced by historical events and societal changes.

Historical Development

The modern environmental movement can be traced back to the 19th century, with key events shaping its progression:

• 1962: Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring" raised awareness about pesticide impacts
• 1970: First Earth Day celebration
• 1972: United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm
• 1987: Brundtland Report introduced the concept of sustainable development

Note

These events contributed to the formation and evolution of various environmental philosophies and value systems.

Spectrum of EVSs

EVSs can be broadly categorized along a spectrum from ecocentric to anthropocentric to technocentric:

1. Ecocentric:
   • Prioritizes the intrinsic value of nature
   • Believes in the interconnectedness of all living things
   • Example: Deep ecology movement
2. Anthropocentric:
   • Focuses on human needs and interests
   • Views nature as a resource for human use
   • Example: Sustainable development approach
3. Technocentric:
   • Emphasizes technological solutions to environmental problems
   • Believes in human ingenuity to overcome ecological challenges
   • Example: Geoengineering proposals for climate change mitigation

Example

An ecocentric individual might oppose a dam project due to its impact on local ecosystems, while an anthropocentric person might support it for its economic benefits. A technocentric approach might propose advanced fish ladders to mitigate the dam's ecological impact.

Intrinsic Value in EVSs

Different EVSs ascribe varying levels of intrinsic value to components of the biosphere:

• Ecocentric: High intrinsic value to all living things and ecosystems
• Anthropocentric: Intrinsic value primarily to humans, instrumental value to nature
• Technocentric: Value based on utility and potential for technological advancement

Common Mistake

It's a misconception that individuals strictly adhere to one EVS. In reality, people often hold a mix of values that may shift depending on the specific environmental issue at hand.

Systems and Models

A systems approach is crucial for studying complex environmental issues, providing a framework to understand interconnections and processes within the environment.

Key Components of Systems

1. Storages: Reservoirs where matter or energy is held
2. Flows: Movement of matter or energy between storages
3. Inputs: Matter or energy entering the system from outside
4. Outputs: Matter or energy leaving the system

Example

In a lake ecosystem:

• Storage: Water in the lake

• Flow: River feeding into the lake

• Input: Rainfall

• Output: Evaporation

Types of Systems

1. Open systems: Exchange both matter and energy with surroundings
   • Example: Most ecosystems
2. Closed systems: Exchange energy but not matter with surroundings
   • Example: Earth (approximately)
3. Isolated systems: Exchange neither matter nor energy with surroundings
   • Example: A perfect thermos flask (theoretical)

Models in Environmental Science

Models are simplified representations of complex systems, useful for:

• Visualizing relationships
• Making predictions
• Testing hypotheses

Tip

When using models, always consider their limitations and assumptions. No model is perfect, but many are useful.

Energy and Equilibria

Understanding energy flow and system equilibria is fundamental to environmental systems science.

Laws of Thermodynamics

1. First Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed
   • Implications: Energy conservation in ecosystems
2. Second Law: In any energy transformation, some energy is lost as heat
   • Implications: Energy pyramids in food chains

Example

In a food chain, only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next due to the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

System Stability and Alternative States

Environmental systems can exist in alternative stable states, with tipping points between them.

• Stable state: A condition where a system tends to remain unless significantly disturbed
• Tipping point: A threshold beyond which a system rapidly shifts to a new state

Example

A clear, plant-dominated shallow lake can shift to a turbid, algae-dominated state if nutrient levels exceed a certain threshold.

Feedback Mechanisms

Feedback mechanisms play a crucial role in system stability:

1. Negative feedback: Counteracts change, promoting stability
   • Example: Thermoregulation in mammals
2. Positive feedback: Amplifies change, potentially leading to system instability
   • Example: Ice-albedo feedback in climate change

Note

Understanding feedback mechanisms is crucial for predicting system behavior and managing environmental issues.

Sustainability

Sustainability is a core concept in environmental systems and societies, focusing on meeting present needs without compromising future generations.

Sustainable Development

The Brundtland Report (1987) defined sustainable development as:

"Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

This concept integrates three pillars:

1. Environmental protection
2. Economic development
3. Social equity

Tip

When analyzing sustainability issues, always consider the interplay between these three pillars.

Environmental Indicators and Ecological Footprints

Environmental indicators help assess sustainability:

1. Ecological Footprint: Measures human demand on nature
2. Carbon Footprint: Quantifies greenhouse gas emissions
3. Water Footprint: Assesses freshwater consumption and pollution

Example

Calculation of Ecological Footprint:

$EF = (P/Y_n) + (E_i/Y_i)$

Where: $EF$ = Ecological Footprint $P$ = Production $Y_n$ = National average yield $E_i$ = Imports $Y_i$ = World average yield

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)

EIAs are crucial tools for sustainable development, involving:

1. Screening
2. Scoping
3. Impact analysis
4. Mitigation measures
5. Reporting
6. Review and decision-making
7. Monitoring and auditing

Note

EIAs help identify potential environmental impacts before project implementation, allowing for mitigation strategies to be developed.

Humans and Pollution

Pollution, defined as human disturbance in ecosystems, is a critical aspect of environmental systems and societies.

Types of Pollution

1. By source:
   • Point source: Single, identifiable source (e.g., factory chimney)
   • Non-point source: Diffuse sources (e.g., agricultural runoff)
2. By persistence:
   • Persistent: Remain in the environment for long periods (e.g., plastics)
   • Biodegradable: Can be broken down by natural processes (e.g., sewage)
3. By origin:
   • Primary: Emitted directly from a source
   • Secondary: Formed by reactions in the environment

Example

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are primary pollutants emitted from vehicle exhausts. They can react in the atmosphere to form secondary pollutants like ozone (O₃).

Pollution Management Strategies

Pollution can be managed at different levels:

1. Prevention: Avoiding pollution creation
   • Example: Using renewable energy instead of fossil fuels
2. Mitigation: Reducing pollution after creation but before release
   • Example: Installing scrubbers in industrial chimneys
3. Remediation: Cleaning up pollution after release
   • Example: Oil spill cleanup operations

Tip

Prevention is generally the most cost-effective and environmentally friendly approach to pollution management.

Common Mistake

It's a misconception that all pollution is immediately visible or harmful. Some pollutants, like certain greenhouse gases, can have long-term impacts that are not immediately apparent.

Understanding these foundational concepts of Environmental Systems and Societies provides a crucial framework for analyzing and addressing complex environmental issues throughout the course and beyond.