Identify four ways to ensure reliability of the mark–release–recapture method in estimating population size.

Explain how the interactions between a species and its environment give rise to the S-shape of its population growth curve.

The future growth of human populations is unlikely to be limited by the availability of energy resources. However, they could easily be limited by the impacts of energy production.

Discuss the validity of this statement.

Using Figure 3 identify the region with the highest fertility rate in the period 2005–2010.

Outline two possible reasons for the projected change in total fertility rate in Sub-Saharan Africa in the period 2045–2050.

Identify two reasons for the projected increase in total fertility rate in Europe by the period 2045–2050.

With reference to Figure 1, identify the recycling rate in England in 2018.

Outline one reason for the shape of the recycling rate curve from 2013 to 2018.

Estimate the reduction in solid domestic waste (in million tonnes) going to landfill from 2001 to 2018.

Describe three reasons why the proportion of solid domestic waste being recycled/ composted and incinerated has changed.

Outline one reason why there has been an overall change in recorded total solid domestic waste between 2001 and 2018.

Costa Rica has a crude birth rate (CBR) of 15.3 and a crude death rate (CDR) of 4.8. Identify the stage in which Costa Rica would be placed on the demographic transition model shown in Figure 1.

Costa Rica has a crude birth rate (CBR) of 15.3 and a crude death rate (CDR) of 4.8.Calculate the natural increase rate (NIR) for Costa Rica.

Costa Rica has a crude birth rate (CBR) of 15.3 and a crude death rate (CDR) of 4.8. Calculate the doubling time for Costa Rica.

Outline one strength and one limitation of the demographic transition model.

Outline the socioeconomic factors that may cause a society to move from Stage 2 to Stage 3 on the demographic transition model.

Outline why top carnivores are vulnerable to non-biodegradable toxins.

Explain two factors which lead to a loss of marine (ocean) biodiversity.

Evaluate one possible pollution management strategy for solid domestic waste.

Outline four ways in which urbanization may influence processes in the hydrological cycle.

Hydropower is a resource that can be exploited from rivers. Explain how the value of this resource to a society may vary over time.

To what extent are water scarcity issues better addressed through changing human behaviour than through technological development?

With reference to named examples, distinguish between a primary and secondary pollutant.

Explain how organic waste may be an effective fertilizer in terrestrial systems but a source of pollution in aquatic systems.

To what extent can different environmental value systems contribute to both causing and resolving the problem of water scarcity?

With reference to Figures 10(a) and 10(b), suggest one reason why London’s recycling rates are lower than in the rest of England.

Evaluate the effectiveness of recycling as a waste management strategy for London