Animal research has played a significant role in the field of psychology, particularly in understanding human behavior. This study note will delve into the use of animal models in research, ethical considerations, key studies, and their implications for human behavior. We will explore various aspects of animal research, including its historical context, ethical guidelines, and specific studies that have provided valuable insights into human behavior.
The use of animals in psychological research has a long history. Early behaviorists, such as Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, extensively used animals in their experiments to understand fundamental principles of learning and behavior. For instance:
- Pavlov's Dogs: Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments with dogs demonstrated how neutral stimuli could become conditioned stimuli, eliciting conditioned responses.
- Skinner's Rats: B.F. Skinner's work with rats in operant conditioning chambers (Skinner boxes) illustrated how reinforcement and punishment shape behavior.
These foundational studies laid the groundwork for understanding complex human behaviors by observing simpler processes in animals.
- Approximately 29 million animals are used annually in experiments in the USA and the EU.
- Rats and mice constitute around 80% of the total number of animals used in research.
- The use of animals in experiments has decreased by half in the past 30 years due to increased ethical considerations and advancements in technology.
- Biochemical Insights: Human beings are animals, and animal models provide insights into biochemical processes that are difficult to study in humans due to ethical constraints.
- Ethical Restrictions: Using humans as participants is limited by ethical guidelines, making animal models a valuable alternative for certain types of research.
- Brain Similarities: Higher-order animals, such as chimpanzees, share significant genetic and neurological similarities with humans, making them useful models for studying human behavior.
Example
For example, chimpanzees share 98.8% of their DNA with humans, making them particularly valuable for studying complex behaviors and neurological processes.
Ethical considerations are paramount when using animals in research. Researchers must adhere to strict guidelines to ensure the humane treatment of animals. Key ethical principles include:
- Reduction: Minimizing the number of animals used in research.
- Refinement: Enhancing experimental techniques to reduce suffering and improve animal welfare.
- Replacement: Using alternative methods, such as computer simulations or cell cultures, whenever possible.
Note
Ethical guidelines are designed to balance the scientific benefits of research with the welfare of the animals involved.
Researchers must apply ethical considerations meticulously in their studies. For example:
- Rosenzweig et al. (1972): Investigated neuroplasticity in rats' brains, ensuring that the procedures were as humane as possible.
- Fadda et al. (1996): Studied neurotransmission in rats' brains while adhering to ethical standards to minimize harm.
- Rosenzweig et al. (1972): This study examined the effects of enriched and impoverished environments on the brain development of rats. It demonstrated that environmental factors could significantly influence brain plasticity.
- Findings: Rats in enriched environments had thicker cerebral cortices and more synaptic connections compared to those in impoverished environments.
- Implications: This research highlighted the importance of environmental stimulation in brain development, with potential applications in understanding human brain plasticity.
- Shively et al. (2009): Investigated the effects of elevated cortisol levels on monkeys' brains to understand the impact of stress on brain function.
- Findings: Chronic stress was linked to changes in brain structure and function, including increased visceral fat and altered brain connectivity.
- Implications: This study provided insights into the relationship between stress and brain health, with implications for understanding stress-related disorders in humans.
- Weaver et al. (2004): Explored epigenetic changes in rats, focusing on how maternal care influences gene expression related to stress responses.
- Findings: Maternal care affected the methylation of genes involved in stress regulation, leading to long-term changes in stress responses.
- Implications: This research demonstrated the role of epigenetics in shaping behavior and provided insights into the intergenerational transmission of stress-related traits.
- Lassi & Tucci (2017): Investigated gene-environment interactions and attachment behaviors in mice.
- Findings: Genetic predispositions interacted with environmental factors to influence attachment behaviors in mice.
- Implications: This study highlighted the complex interplay between genetics and environment in shaping behavior, with potential applications for understanding human attachment and developmental disorders.
- Buss et al. (1989): Examined evolutionary explanations for mate preferences in humans.
- Findings: Certain mate preferences, such as seeking partners with high reproductive potential, were consistent across cultures and aligned with evolutionary theories.
- Implications: This research provided evidence for evolutionary influences on human behavior, particularly in the context of mate selection.
- Clarke & Miller (1989): Investigated evolutionary explanations for aggression and territoriality in animals.
- Findings: Territorial behaviors in animals were linked to evolutionary pressures for resource acquisition and protection.
- Implications: These findings offered insights into the evolutionary roots of human aggression and territoriality.
- Martin et al. (2005): Studied the role of pheromones in red-backed salamanders and territoriality.
- Findings: Pheromones played a crucial role in territorial behaviors and mating strategies in salamanders.
- Implications: This research provided insights into the role of chemical signaling in social behaviors, with potential applications for understanding human pheromones and social interactions.
- Fadda et al. (1996): Explored the effects of neurotransmission on behavior in rats.
- Findings: Alterations in neurotransmitter levels influenced various behaviors, including learning and memory.
- Implications: This study highlighted the importance of neurotransmission in regulating behavior, with potential applications for understanding human neurological disorders.
Animal research has significantly contributed to our understanding of human behavior. By studying animals, researchers can gain insights into fundamental processes that are difficult to investigate in humans due to ethical constraints. However, ethical considerations are crucial to ensure the humane treatment of animals in research. Key studies have demonstrated the value of animal models in understanding brain function, genetics, evolutionary behavior, and the role of hormones and pheromones. These insights have profound implications for understanding human behavior and developing interventions for psychological disorders.
Tip
When discussing or evaluating the value of animal models in research, always offer a balanced argument. Resist the temptation to only argue for or against their use, as this could result in losing marks. Being overly passionate or emotional in an essay is not recommended in this academic context.
Example
Question: Discuss the value of animal models to provide insight into human behavior. [22 marks]
Introduction: Some psychological research uses animals, such as rats, as their subjects (only human beings are referred to as 'participants') in an attempt to apply the findings to human behavior. An animal model is used in research for the purpose of better understanding behavior without the added risk of causing harm to a human during the process for obvious ethical reasons (the protection of participants). Animals have been an important feature of psychological movements such as Behaviorism in the 1950s, e.g., the reinforcement of reward on different schedules gave an insight into human gambling behavior. Biopsychology has tested rats’ navigation of a T-maze to highlight the role of ACh in learning and memory, an insight which would not have been achievable with human participants. This essay will consider the relative value of animal models in understanding human behavior using research by Skinner (1951) and Fadda et al. (1996).