Extreme environments are regions where living conditions are harsh and challenging for human survival and habitation. These environments are characterized by their extreme climate, difficult terrain, and limited resources. Despite these challenges, some extreme environments offer unique opportunities for development and economic activity, such as rich mineral deposits. This study note will explore the characteristics of extreme environments, their distribution, the challenges they pose for human habitation and resource development, and the changing distribution of these environments.
What is an Extreme Environment?
Extreme environments are places that are considered inaccessible and very hard for human life to survive in. Examples of extreme environments include:
- Deep ocean trenches
- Hyper-arid deserts (cold or hot)
- Salt lakes
- Volcanoes
- Mountain plateaus
These areas often have low population densities due to the harsh conditions that make it difficult to obtain and maintain energy and food supplies. Indigenous peoples in these regions are increasingly abandoning traditional lifestyles.
Distribution of Cold and High-Altitude Environments
Cold and high-altitude environments include:
- Polar regions
- Glacial areas
- Periglacial areas
- High mountains in non-tropical latitudes
Cold environments are mostly found at high latitudes (66° north and south of the equator), such as the polar regions and arctic tundra. These areas are also known as cold deserts because of:
- Low levels of precipitation
- Poor soil conditions
- Low levels of vegetation
Cold environments are also found at high altitudes, such as the Himalayas and the Andes.
Relief & Climate Characteristics of Cold & High-Altitude Environments
Around the world, cold environments vary. For instance, polar regions are considered to be dry (arid) but some areas can be hyper-arid. The upper latitudes experience months where the sun does not rise or sink.
Polar Climate:
- Harsh, covered in snow and ice
- Long winters and short summers
- Snow storms and cold winds for most of the year
- The Arctic's mean temperature range is -28 °C to 4 °C
- Average annual precipitation of approx. 100mm
- The Antarctic's mean temperature is -55 °C in some places
- Coastal areas are milder, with an annual average of -10 °C
- The annual average precipitation is 200 mm
Polar Relief:
- The Arctic is a frozen ocean mostly surrounded by land with pack and drift ice, rugged shores, flat coastal plains, rolling hills, and mountains surpassing 6,000 m above sea level.
- The Antarctic is an area of land surrounded by oceans, covered in a thick ice sheet. The Transantarctic mountain range divides the continent east and west, with peaks above 4,000 m. West Antarctica has the highest mountain (Mt Vinson) at 4892m above sea level.
High-Mountain (Non-Tropical) Climate:
- Cool climates with some snow coverage but not all year
- Seasonal temperatures range from −10 °C in winter to 20 °C in the summer months
- Precipitation in high mountains depends on aspect
Permafrost is permanently frozen ground found in cold environments, typically in polar regions such as Siberia, Alaska, and Canada, where temperatures remain below 0°C for at least two consecutive years. It can extend deep into the ground, with layers of frozen soil, rock, and organic matter.
Significance of Permafrost:
- Carbon Storage:
- Permafrost acts as a major carbon sink, storing vast amounts of carbon in the form of organic material (plant and animal remains) that have been frozen for thousands of years. It is estimated that permafrost contains nearly twice the amount of carbon currently in the atmosphere.
- Carbon Release:
- As global temperatures rise, permafrost is thawing, releasing greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄) into the atmosphere. This release contributes to climate change, creating a positive feedback loop: more warming leads to more permafrost thaw, which leads to more carbon release.
- The release of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, from thawing permafrost is particularly concerning, as it can accelerate global warming at a faster rate than carbon dioxide.
- Impacts on Infrastructure:
- In areas where permafrost supports infrastructure like buildings, roads, and pipelines, thawing permafrost can lead to ground subsidence, causing significant damage to infrastructure and creating challenges for communities living in these regions.
Cold Environments (e.g., Arctic and Alpine Regions)
Plant Adaptations:
- Low Growth Forms: Plants like mosses, lichens, and small shrubs grow low to the ground, which helps them avoid strong winds and retain heat from the soil.
- Perennials: Many Arctic plants are perennials, meaning they survive multiple years, allowing them to conserve energy and survive long winters.
- Photosynthesis Adaptations: Some Arctic plants can photosynthesize at very low temperatures and low light levels, which is essential in regions with long winters and short growing seasons.
Animal Adaptations:
- Thick Fur and Fat Layers: Animals like polar bears, arctic foxes, and seals have thick layers of fur and fat to insulate against the cold. These adaptations help them retain body heat.
- Hibernation: Animals like the arctic ground squirrel hibernate during the harshest parts of winter to conserve energy.
- Color Change: Some animals, such as the arctic hare and ptarmigan, change color seasonally to blend in with their environment (white in winter for snow camouflage and brown in summer for vegetation).
Hot Arid Regions (e.g., Deserts)
Plant Adaptations:
- Succulents: Plants like cacti have thick, fleshy tissues that store water for long periods. Their waxy coating reduces water loss through transpiration.
- Deep Root Systems: Many desert plants, such as mesquite, have deep root systems that allow them to access water far below the surface.
- Reduced Leaf Surface Area: To minimize water loss, desert plants like acacias have small or no leaves, reducing surface area and water loss through transpiration.
Animal Adaptations:
- Nocturnal Behavior: Many desert animals, such as fennec foxes and kangaroo rats, are nocturnal to avoid the extreme daytime heat. They are active during the cooler nights.
- Water Conservation: Animals like the camel have adaptations that allow them to go for long periods without water. Camels store fat in their humps and conserve water by producing concentrated urine.
- Heat Regulation: Desert animals, like the addax and oryx, can tolerate high body temperatures, reducing the need for water to cool down.
1. Inuit of the Arctic
Environment: The Inuit people inhabit the Arctic regions of Canada, Alaska, Greenland, and Russia, where temperatures can drop to as low as -50°C in winter.
Traditional Knowledge and Adaptation Strategies:
- Housing: Traditionally, the Inuit built igloos in winter, which are made from snow and serve as excellent insulators. Today, many Inuit communities live in modern houses but still use knowledge of local materials to cope with the extreme cold.
- Clothing: Inuit clothing is traditionally made from animal skins, particularly seals and caribou, which provide insulation and protect against wind. Clothing design also allows for efficient movement during hunting.
- Diet: The Inuit diet is high in fat and protein, primarily from hunting marine animals like seals, whales, and fish, providing the necessary energy to survive in cold environments. They use traditional knowledge of animal behavior and ice conditions to hunt effectively.
2. Bedouins of the Arabian Desert
Environment: The Bedouins are nomadic people living in the deserts of the Middle East and North Africa, where temperatures can exceed 50°C during the day and drop significantly at night.
Traditional Knowledge and Adaptation Strategies:
- Nomadic Lifestyle: The Bedouins are traditionally nomadic, moving with their herds of camels and goats to areas where water and pasture are available. This mobility is key to surviving in an arid environment with scarce resources.
- Clothing: Bedouins wear loose, light-colored robes (often made of cotton or wool) that provide protection from the sun while allowing air circulation to keep cool. The head coverings (such as the keffiyeh) protect against sandstorms and the sun.
- Water Conservation: The Bedouins have deep knowledge of finding and conserving water in the desert, using underground springs and wells. They practice strict water conservation, carrying only what they need and making efficient use of available resources.
Challenges for Human Habitation
Extreme environments have low population densities, such as in central Australia, Iceland, northern Canada, and Namibia. People have to adapt to harsh environments such as insufficient heat in Iceland and Canada or water scarcity in places such as Australia and the Sahara. These environments are outside what is known as the 'comfort zone for human habitation'.
Challenges include:
- Limited water, food, and fuel
- Climate extremes
- Extreme temperatures can cause heat stroke or frostbite
- The seasonal melting of permafrost can cause subsidence, affecting the structural integrity of buildings
- Unpredictable and severe weather patterns, from heavy snowfall or rainfall to dust storms, cause damage to infrastructure and disruptions
- The lack of daylight in polar regions affects physical and mental health
- Remoteness and inaccessibility
Challenges for Resource Development
Developing and extracting resources in extreme environments requires advanced, reliable, and usually expensive equipment. Hot and arid environments offer little in the way of natural resources, such as clean water and fertile soil, to support humans. Water in cold environments can be frozen for most of the year. Any development in these fragile environments has significant ecological footprints, such as habitat damage and pollution. The harsh conditions increase the economic costs linked to resource development and extraction. Development projects are sensitive to fluctuations in global markets, making the feasibility of development in these areas an issue.
The distribution of extreme environments is changing due to factors such as climate change, technological advancements, and economic development. For example, the melting of polar ice caps is opening new areas for resource exploitation and human habitation. Similarly, advancements in technology are making it possible to develop and inhabit previously inaccessible areas.
Extreme environments present unique challenges and opportunities. Understanding their characteristics, distribution, and the challenges they pose for human habitation and resource development is crucial for sustainable development and management of these regions. As the distribution of these environments changes, it is essential to balance economic growth with the preservation of these fragile ecosystems.